Table of Contents

1. Introduction
2. Gautama´s Noble Eightfold Path
3. Theravada Tradition and the Path of Purification
- 3.1. The Four Stages of the Path
4. Mahayana Tradition and the Path to Buddhahood
- 4.1. Pure Land Buddhism and the Path of Devotion
- 4.2. Chan / Zen Buddhism and the Power of Paradox
  - a. The Koan
  - b. “Just Sitting” (Shikantaza)
5. Tantric Buddhism and the Path of Many Methods
- 5.1. Mahāmudrā School
- 5.2. Dzogchen School
  - a. Rainbow Body

**The Deities of Buddhism: the Hundred Peaceful and Wrathful Deities of the Bardo (Intermediate State).** Forty-two peaceful deities and fifty-eight wrathful ones are believed to reside in the Bardo states. Pictured above are the wrathful ones. Note that the deities depicted in this assembly mandala, however, are personifications of different aspects of the practitioners themselves, such as their own awareness or their psycho-physical aggregates, elemental properties, and sensory and mental processes and organs. The peaceful deities symbolize these components in their purified state, while the wrathful ones represent the transformative aspects of these energies [1]. These deities and their mandala representation appear in many teachings related, especially, to the *Tibetan Book of the Dead* and the Guhyagarbha Tantra.

The central deity and Primordial Buddha, Samantabhadra, represents in Dzogchen´s doctrine our true nature, the Ground state. Sogyal Rinpoche clarified our relation to this deity when he unambiguously stated: “[Kuntuzangpo] represents the absolute, naked, sky-like primordial purity of the nature of our mind”.¹ Note that the wrathful than g ka represents an inverted image of the peaceful one, with Chemchok Heruka, the central deity, being the wrathful form of Samantabhadra. The wrathful deities, vividly described as horrifying, are nevertheless considered as the necessary counterpart of the peaceful ones. This is a clear example of Complementary Dualism and the doctrine of the Union of Opposites. “Evil” is not a concept assigned to any of them.

1. Introduction

Contrary to other traditions where their mystical schools are differentiated from the main branch of their parent religion (e.g., Kabbalah in Judaism, Sufism in Islam), Buddhism and all Indian religions place their mystical and practical teachings at the forefront. Every Buddhist is expected to follow one path or another to achieve liberation, while not every Muslim is expected to also be a Sufi.

It is common for the esoteric mystical schools that become separated from their corresponding exoteric religions to eventually develop different parallel metaphysical doctrines. This is not the case for Buddhism (or any other Indian tradition), where the most esoteric sects focus on method development and practice while sharing the same worldview as their parent exoteric tradition. We will now briefly discuss these methods.

2. Gautama´s Noble Eightfold Path

The classic and most widely known Buddhist path (marga) to liberation is the Noble Eightfold Path. It was developed by Siddharta Gautama. Different descriptions of it are found in the Pali canon:

“Now what, monks, is the Noble Eightfold Path? Right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration [Samadhi].”

― Gautama Buddha²

3. Theravada Tradition and the Path of Purification

Theravada mysticism, the oldest of the traditions still alive today, is concerned with emptying the mind of the aspirant of any trace of subjective experience. The process is described as “a flame going out”.

Meditation is pursued as a crucial part of the path toward liberation from defilements (Kleshas), clinging, and craving (Upādāna). The expected results are awakening and the attainment of Nirvana.³

A variety of techniques are employed to that end. An important one is mindfulness of breathing (Anapanasati). Other methods include “reflections on repulsiveness” of aspects of life (Asubha Bhavana)⁴, reflection on dependent origination (Pratityasamutpada), recollections of qualities of the Buddha (Anussati), and Mindfulness⁵⁶⁷⁸. Also important are the contemplations on loving-kindness and compassion (Brahma-Viharas).

The practitioner is expected to achieve unification of mind (Samadhi) through developing tranquillity and concentration (Samatha), as well as insight (Vipassanā) on the ultimate nature of everything that exists. In this tradition, the one who achieves Nirvana through his own efforts is called an Arhat, meaning “one who is worthy”.

The traditional outline of the Theravada path to liberation, the Seven Purifications, can be found in the classic manual called “The Path of Purification” (Visuddhimagga).

*Image 1.* The Systematizing of Buddhism: Buddhaghosa with three copies of the Visuddhimagga. This work is a comprehensive and systematic summary and “manual” of Theravada teachings and practices. It is considered the principal text on meditation⁹ and is of a predominantly ascetical character. The interpretations contained within are considered the orthodox Theravada understanding of Buddhist scriptures (at least since the 12th century).¹⁰ Picture: Kelaniya Raja Maha Vihara, Sri Lanka.

3.1. The Four Stages of the Path

Theravadins believe that the adepts will have to pass through four successive stages before reaching their final destination:

1. Stream Enterer: when the truth has been at least dimly seen and no more than seven additional reincarnations await the aspirant.

2. Once-Returner: when only an additional life will be needed to achieve Nirvana.

3. Non-Returner: when liberation will be attained in this life or in the intermediate state before another rebirth takes place. No more doubt or belief in a permanent self is left at this point.

4. Arhat: when complete freedom has been achieved, and the awakened being is free from ignorance and the desire to exist in either the realms of form or the formless ones.

4. Mahayana Tradition and the Path to Buddhahood

A follower of Mahayana begins his path with the vow to become a Buddha. During his quest for self-transcendence, he will have to pass through ten stages or spiritual stations (Bhumi) and purify himself through the practice of the ten perfections (Paramitas).

The first six levels are a preparation for the next and include the development of general virtues (generosity, morality, patience, vigor, concentration and wisdom).

Reaching the seventh station is believed to result in an irreversible achievement where the bodhisattva assumes his true Buddha Nature. Everything is now seen as uncreated, and the adept becomes increasingly identified with the body of truth (Dharmakaya) of the Buddha until he reaches the final state, that of all-knowing Buddhahood.

4.1. Pure Land Buddhism and the Path of Devotion

Pure La n d Buddhists chant the name of their chosen Buddha (usually Amitābha) as a form of mindfulness and to achieve focal concentration on him alone (Samādhi)¹¹. With the same objective in mind, they can also engage in meditative contemplation and visualization of Amitābha and his Pure Land. The aim is to reincarnate there in order to be able to finally learn the doctrines that they could not grasp in this life.

*Image 2.* Praying to the Buddhas: Buddha Amitabha descending from his Pure Land. Pure Land Buddhism, originating in Japan, is the most commonly practiced form of Buddhism in the world and the most unknown to the West. Nevertheless, its doctrines are key to Mahayana, which has been described as a “Buddhism of the Pure Lands”. This school of thought focuses on the contemplation of the Pure Land of Buddha Amitabha, called Sukhavati (Land of Bliss). Many practitioners aim to be reborn in this ethereal place in their next life, where the grasping of complex doctrines not fully assimilated during life is believed to be easily achievable. Others, however, think of the Pure Lands as symbolizing Nirvana, yet being in some way present within our realm of existence. Others may view both positions as complementary.

Even though Pure Land and its methods of deity invocation and prayer may appear superficially more theistic in nature than other forms of Buddhism, Amitabha and other Buddhas as just particular instances of beings who achieved illumination after a myriad existences and are ranked below the general impersonal Buddha Nature, of which we all partake. As the *Contemplation Sutra* states in a very explicit way: “the mind that creates the Buddha is the Buddha”. Picture: unidentified artist, 13th century, China.

4.2. Chan / Zen Buddhism and the Power of Paradox

This tradition is known for its austerity, simple aesthetics and iconoclast attitude. Its main methods to achieve awakening (Satori) and to “see one’s true (Buddha) Nature” (Kensho) are:

a. The Koan

A Koan is a short story, dialogue or question that the teacher may pose to the student in order to evaluate his spiritual understanding. It is often a paradoxical statement that seems illogical. The idea behind this method is to exhaust the logical reasoning capacity of the disciple in order to force an abrupt breakthrough moment of intuition about the ultimate nature of reality. The end result is the experience of subject-object non-duality.

b. “Just Sitting” (Shikantaza)

Also called “silent illumination”, practitioners strive to leave their minds empty, eliminating any trace of conceptualizing, grasping or any other mental state that implies subject-object dualism.¹²

The concept of “sudden enlightenment” became one of the key attractions of Zen Buddhism. However, gradual enlightenment is also important in this school (e.g., Ten Ox-Herding Pictures).

*Image 3.* Ensō and the Appeal of Spontaneity and Emptiness. The drawing of an Ensō, a Zen spiritual practice *(hitsuzendō*), symbolizes enlightenment, elegance, the Universe and Emptiness (Mu: pure non-dual awareness prior to any experience or knowledge). When the circle is open and incomplete, it is related to the notion of *wabi-sabi*, the beauty of imperfection. When it is closed, it represents archetypal perfection. The circle is drawn in a single stroke that is believed to show the character and spiritual state of its creator at a specific point in time. Picture: Enso Calligraphy by Kanjuro Shibata, XX.

5. Tantric Buddhism and the Path of Many Methods

Tantric Buddhism, Esoteric Buddhism or Mantrayana is the name given to the different traditions of Tibetan or Vajrayāna Buddhism. They usually include the meditation methods of other Mahayana schools, but also add multiple other techniques considered to achieve faster results. The adept has to train under the vigilance of a master or guru (Lama).

As taught in the Kalachakra Tantra, tantric practice is thought to be especially necessary in degenerate times such as ours. Using it, practitioners can achieve enlightenment even through a passion-filled body, sometimes fighting poison with poison.

The defining meditation method of this school is Deity Yoga (Devatayoga)¹³. This involves the visualization of the chosen deity and associated mandala and Pure Land. Mantra recitation is also employed.¹⁴

Advanced stages of the practice include imagining oneself as the deity and developing “divine pride”, as well as the realization that the deity and oneself are not different entities, since both are ultimately understood as equally proceeding from Emptiness.

The three stages of the path have been summarized (Lamrim) as: developing the aspiration for awakening (Bodhicitta), the aspiration to liberate all living beings and insight into Emptiness itself.

Other paths in Tibetan Buddhism include Mahamudra (Kagyu lineage) and Dzogchen (Nyingma lineage). They both try to realize the ground or base of existence, the Dharmakāya.

A multitude of other methods are also used by particular schools, including Dream Yoga, “inner heat” (Tummo), the Yoga of the intermediate state (Bardo) at the moment of death, sexual Yoga and Chöd or “cutting through the ego”, which uses fear to annihilate the ego of the disciple. The preliminary practices shared by all schools include contemplations on key principles of the path (Ngöndro), mantra recitation and prostrations.

Chinese (Tendai) and Japanese (Shingon) schools of esoteric Buddhism use similar techniques.

*Image 4.* The Colors of Illumination: Padmasambhava, represented in a Rainbow Body. The concept of the rainbow body is native to both Buddhism and the Bon tradition. This energetic body is believed to be achieved after a high state of illumination is attained, with it sometimes manifesting shortly after death, where the body dissolves into light leaving no remains behind. It is also usually associated with the peaceful aspect of the deities. The rainbow is a symbol of totality, as it includes all possible colors, maybe pointing to a definition of emptiness as All-Possibility, another name for the Absolute.

5.1. Mahāmudrā School

The highest paths distinguish between two stages of the practice: Generation and Completion stages. The first is based on Deity Yoga, while the second uses a form of energy Yoga (similar to the Kundalini variant of Yoga) and Emptiness meditation practices.

The Mahāmudrā (“Great Seal” or “Great Symbol”) school uses “the four Yogas of Mahāmudrā” to try to achieve the following states, which can be correlated with the Mahāyāna Bhumi states:

1. One-pointedness.

2. Simplicity.

3. “One taste”.

4. Non-Meditation: where neither meditation nor meditator are conceptualized, thus making subject-object duality disappear.

5.2. Dzogchen School

Translated as “Great Perfection” or “Great Completion” (also known as Atiyoga or Utmost Yoga), this popular school has three main points of focus: the Base, the Path and the Fruit.

The Base represents the original state of existence, defined as Emptiness, clarity and compassionate energy.

The Path is formed of view (correct understanding of reality), practice and conduct.

The Fruit represents the realization of one’s true Buddha Nature and experiencing non-dual awareness.

**Image 5.** A mural at the fifth Dalai Lama´s Lukhang Temple showing different tantric yogic practices of energy and consciousness manipulation (Tummo [inner fire] and Phowa [transference of consciousness]).

**Image 6.** In Dzogchen, the practice of Tögal (“crossing the peak”, “direct crossing”, or “direct transcendence”) involves meditation and experiencing visions while sky (and Sun) gazing.¹⁵ It is considered, along with Trekchö, as one of Vajrayana´s most advanced and direct methods, believed to allow its practitioners “to proceed directly to the goal without having to go through intermediate steps.”¹⁶

a. Rainbow Body

The practice of the Tögal method is believed to be able to lead the aspirants to full Buddhahood at the moment of death and to transform their earthly body into a Rainbow Body¹⁷, understood as one made of light. This new body is viewed as a manifestation of the “enjoyment body” (Sambhogakāya) of a Buddha.

Symbolism in Buddhism: lotus, stupas, triratna, Dharma wheel and mandalas, among others.

UNITY OF OPPOSITES IN BUDDHISM- [Click here]

We have seen that it is common in different Buddhist meditation practices to believe that the experience of realization is attained once different opposites (the Many) are intuitively experienced as one common underlying reality (the One).

This is often symbolized as the union (Yab-Yum) of the passive female deity (representing
wisdom or Emptiness) with the dynamic male (compassion without attachment). This union is thought to be the cause of enlightenment and bliss. Note how the deities, in this case, do not represent any personal being but personalized abstract concepts.

**Image 7. The **Primordial Budd**ha as the Unity of Opposites:** **Buddhist Yab-Yum (Father-Mother) drawing.** Note the complementarity of the union between both Male/Female and Light/Dark motifs. Samantabhadra (male, dark blue) represents our ultimate true nature, which is at the same time the Ground of all existence, limitlessness and formlessness. Samantabhadri (female, white), his consort, represents the wisdom aspect of mind.

This is another representative example of the doctrine of the union or identity of opposites present in most mystical and esoteric traditions. It is also a central theme of many Koans¹⁸, such as Hakuin´s famous one, where duality and unity are the key concepts to be grasped: “Two hands clap and there is a sound, what is the sound of one hand?”

Notes

Rinpoche, Sogyal (1992). The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying, p. 106.
Thanissaro, Bhikkhu (1996). “Magga-vibhanga Sutta: An Analysis of the Path” (accesstoinsight.org).
Kamalashila (2003), p. 4, states that Buddhist meditation “includes any method of meditation that has awakening as its ultimate aim.
― Bodhi (1999): “To arrive at the experiential realization of the truths it is necessary to take up the practice of meditation […] At the climax of such contemplation the mental eye […] shifts its focus to the unconditioned state, Nibbana.”
― Fischer-Schreiber et al. (1991), p. 142: “Meditation – general term for a multitude of religious practices, often quite different in method, but all having the same goal: to bring the consciousness of the practitioner to a state in which he can come to an experience of ‘awakening,’ ‘liberation,’ ‘enlightenment.’”
― Kamalashila (2003), p. 4, further explains that some Buddhist meditations are “of a more preparatory nature”.”
Deleanu, Florin (1992). Mindfulness of Breathing in the Dhyāna Sūtras. Transactions of the International Conference of Orientalists in Japan (TICOJ) 37, pp. 42-57.
Vetter, Tilmann (1988). The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism. Brill.
Bronkhorst, Johannes (1993). The Two Traditions Of Meditation In Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass.
Anālayo (2017). Early Buddhist Meditation Studies. Barre Center for Buddhist Studies Barre, Massachusetts, USA, p. 109.
Arbel, Keren (2016). Early Buddhist Meditation: The Four Jhanas as the Actualization of Insight. Taylor & Francis.
Luk, Charles (1964). The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. Weiser, p. 83.
Shaw, Sarah (2006). Buddhist Meditation: An Anthology of Texts from the Pali Canon. Routledge, p. 5.
Gombrich, Richard F. Buddhist Precept & Practice. London: Routledge, p. 51.
Taigen Dan, Leighton (2000). Cultivating the Empty Field: The Silent Illumination of Zen Master Hongzhi. Tuttle, pp. 1-2.
Power, John (1995). Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism. Snow Lion Publications, p. 271.
Garson, Nathaniel DeWitt (2004). Penetrating the Secret Essence Tantra: Context and Philosophy in the Mahayoga System of rNying-ma Tantra. University of Virginia, p. 37.
Ray, Reginald (2001). Secret of the Vajra World: The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet. Shambhala, p. 323.
Smith, Malcolm (2016). Buddhahood in This Life: The Great Commentary by Vimalamitra. Simon and Schuster, p.26.
Chökyi Nyima Rinpoche (1994). Union of Mahamudra and Dzogchen. Rangjung Yeshe Publications, p. 224.

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